How is a raised urine albumin/creatinine ratio (ACR) linked to kidney failure?

Urine cytology is the examination of urothelial cells under the microscope. This allows assessing the cellular nature of the urothelial cells. We study the nuclear and cytoplasmic features which may suggest a urothelial malignancy. Voided urinary cytology is recommended in all patients who have risk factors for urothelial carcinoma. The sensitivity of voided urine cytology for detection of urothelial neoplasm ranges from 18% to 76% and is dependent on factors such as tumor grade, the number of specimens examined, and the expertise of the cytopathologist.

The most common cause of dysuria is a urinary tract infection, especially in young females. This is often associated with increased frequency and urgency of passing urine. This is sometimes accompanied with fever, cloudy smelly urine or visible blood in the urine. This is usually easily treated with a short course of antibiotics. Vaginal infections such as from yeast can also cause dysuria. Sexually transmitted infections such as gonorrhea, chlamydia or herpes also cause dysuria, and can be accompanied by genital itching and abnormal discharge from the urethra (men) or vagina.